Reports from our Talks Programme
By Peter Keen

1000 Miles and 500 Locks : Audrey and David Smith

The Society's December 2003 meeting, on a wet and windswept evening, was privileged to play host to Audrey and David Smith. They have both been long standing members of many waterway organisations and have extensive practical experience of boating. Having begun their sailing lives with a 22ft boat, two children and a dog, they have moved onwards and upwards. During the course of 2003 they undertook an epic voyage in their boat, the 50ft long Muffin No.3, around Britain's canal system, taking in many of the well known waterways but also including many byways and branches which other boaters would ignore. They actually covered 1020 miles and negotiated 480 locks, averaging 23.5 lock miles per day.

They began from their home moorings at Johnson's Hillock on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, headed eastwards to pick up the Aire and Calder, then veered southwards via the River Trent and the Grand Union Canal then eastwards along the River Nene and along the Great Ouse to Bedford. After trailing the boat across country for a short distance, further miles slipped below the keel, via the Grand Union to Brentford and up the Thames to Lechlade. Here a temporary halt was called as the boaters were required back in the north.

Having sailed the same canals in the past there were plenty of changes for them to see. The Society was treated to a sequence of anecdotes of various stopping points, memorable for one reason or another. On their 'home' canal there had been great developments in the Blackburn area, including the renovation of Eanam wharf. At Salterforth they visited the Anchor Inn which was there before the canal was built, right alongside the building. As a result the lower storeys of the inn tend to get rather damp (wet) and the display of stalactites hanging from the cellar ceilings was most impressive. Passage through Foulridge Tunnel is now well organised, light controlled with regular passage of boats in an alternate one way system.

On entering the Aire and Calder at Leeds more changes were evident, most important being that the lock is now user-operated. Second in importance was the demise of the Tetley Museum, Brewery Wharf, a welcome stopping point in the past. To make up for this loss, the nearby flint and china crushing mill has now been converted into a museum and the Manager's house is also open to the public.

On to the Calder where the tom pudding hoist still survives although only a couple of the 'boats' themselves were visible. Passage across the Don Aqueduct looked precarious since the canal is built across the river which can become of such a depth as to cover the canal channel completely. Fortunately, on the day, the river flows were not too bad. Shortly afterwards they arrived at Thorne Lock which, being only 58ft long means that there is no passage beyond for 72ft boats. Next came an interesting railway bridge which did not swing or lift but was slid aside to allow boats to pass along the waterway. Needless to say this was operated from the nearby signal box rather than by the boater.

Linking with the Trent, a tidal river, delays were expected and sure enough they had to wait. However the reason was nothing to do with the tide. Apparently a pile of clothes had been found on the towpath and there was known to be a local nude runner who took his exercise there. Police frogmen were searching the river and eventually found the runner, sadly drowned.

The next waterway was the River Soar, heading southwards. Here at Red Hill Lock, a new lock had been built but the old one was left alongside, filled in but with its lower gates intact. They then reached the bottom of the Foxton Inclined Plane, long disused. The alternative way between levels was via the replacement lock flight, a fairly elaborate system with side pounds, a central passing basin and a lock house at the top. Negotiation of the flight called for much concentration as the paddle gear, painted red or white, had to be operated in a particular sequence to minimise water loss and avoid damage to boats. The locks at Watford Gap are of the same type and need similar respect. These however form another barrier since they accommodate only narrow boats so this is the limit of navigation for broad vessels from the south.

At the junction of the Grand Union with the River Nene, substantial flood defences have been installed, controlled by guillotine gates. The more usual mitre gates would not be suitable at this site because of the variation in levels of the two waterways. Further on yet another type of gate was encountered at Ditchfield. This is a radial gate, the only one on the waterway. Past Peterborough the locks down to the middle level were 58 ft long but have been rebuilt to 72 ft. More work had to be done however for boats of this length to make progress since Whittlesea Bend was so acute as to jam them, ends and centre. The Ramsey Arm was explored but was found to be very weedy and neglected.

Passing Upwell and Outwell villages Audrey and David entered the tidal Great Ouse via Salter's Lode Lock with the short run to Denver Sluice. This is a long standing and essential flood control facility. Beyond the sluices there are many river tributaries, known locally as lodes.. The River Wissey flows through the sugar beet area and has seen many a loaded barge. The lock on the Little Ouse is only 9' by 36', too small for Muffin No3, making it impossible to reach the head of the navigation at Brandon. Streatham engine house doesn't bring a water supply but pumps surface water into the river to drain the surrounding area.

The most striking incident of the journey occurred beyond St. Neot's Lock. Audrey and David had tried to contact Hugh McKnight, the waterway author, to arrange a meeting but without success. Seeking a mooring beside a pub, they were amazed to see Hugh himself, pottering in his garden. He promptly invited them to stay for a few nights and try out both his own and the local pub's culinary offerings. They were still nattering in the garden at midnight.

At Bedford, the end of the line, they met the IWA boat 'Jubilee' which was there to promote the proposed new link westwards to Milton Keynes. In fact five boats, including 'Jubilee' and 'Muffin No.3' were craned out of the water and trailed to Milton Keynes from whence the Smiths continued southwards along the Grand Union to Brentford where they locked into the Thames. Then it was up river through Richmond Bridge, and Teddington Lock. Beyond Windsor they met an intrepid voyager in a coracle on his way downstream to Teddington. They offered him their hospitality and he took a welcome break.

At Oxford boaters can use either river or canal since they eventually join together west of the town. At Priory Locks the gates are so well balanced that the lock keeper can operate them from one bank, using a long pole to swing the gates. Another novelty boat was encountered near Lechlade in the form of a camping skiff. An open rowing boat with a collapsible canvas cover, its occupants were having a relaxing time, except of course when it became necessary to row. The lady crew member replied to a question of how well they were progressing with "it depends which engine is being used".

Lechlade is the limit of navigation of the River Thames, marked by the statue of Old Father Thames at St. John's Lock. It is also the start of the Thames and Severn Canal with its unique roundhouse lock cottages. One is now the property of BW and Audrey and David were invited to inspect it. And there for the moment their journey has ceased. In the new year they will return to their boat and resume their voyage around the canal system, no doubt to return with another fund of stories.

To the boaters present at the meeting, the presentation brought back many memories of the waterways they had sailed whilst to the non-boaters it was a stimulating description of life afloat. The Society extended its thanks to Audrey and David for their time and effort and looks forward to part two of their epic.

The Early Sugar Industry : 1680 - 1850 : Dr. Mona Duggan

SCARS's first meeting of the new year was addressed by Dr. Mona Duggan, author and historian. Her topic, the Early Sugar Industry, was one relevant to the Sankey Canal since sugar was its last commercial cargo.

All early sugar was obtained from sugar cane, as recorded in 500BC in India, 200BC in China, in Persia in 600AD and Egypt in 700AD. Egyptian sugar was shipped to Venice where the first sugar refining is recorded, after which it was sold all over Europe, helping to develop that city as a prosperous and powerful economic base.

In Europe the main refineries were established at Amsterdam and Antwerp. Since fuel was cheap on the continent they were able to sell in Britain to the detriment of British refineries. There were only two sugar houses which served the whole of Britain. Only when Dutch imports were interrupted were these British refineries able to make a profit.

New plantations were developed in Madeira by 1420, North America by 1492, the Canaries by 1503 and Mexico by 1520. The Spanish and Portuguese set up plantations in northern Brazil but suffered extensive piracy as British Privateers intercepted and seized their sugar cargoes to sell in England.

Such was the demand for sugar that new sites for plantations were constantly being sought. Experiments in Africa and Bermuda failed during the 1590s but the cane was successfully established in Barbados by 1630. By that time the English had learned what to do with sugar.

In England sugar was first regarded as a medicine and an Ormskirk inventory of 1640 listed sugar as part of a course of treatment for an illness. Later it came to be regarded as a luxury and was even given as presents by the well-to-do. During England's civil war there was no British trade in sugar , making it scarce and consequently yet more expensive. At the end of hostilities trade resumed but prices remained high. Some of the reasons for this were the high initial cost, import tax and the recently introduced "Navigation Laws" whereby the colonies had to use English ships and ports, both of which tended to be more expensive than others. Workers for the plantations were obtained from the less fortunate classes of the time. In 1448 the poor were gathered off Liverpool's streets and indentured to the plantations for 7 years. In the 1600s prisoners were sent from London's jails, soldiers from the Monmouth rebellion and, it is recorded, two orphans from Aughton. Later, one 'businessman' went so far as to buy soldiers from the defeated Jacobite army to sell to plantation owners. Unfortunately for all concerned his shackled prisoners were drowned as their boat capsized during the tripfrom shore to ship in a stormy River Mersey. He even had the temerity to lodge a compensation claim for his loss. As the labour problem became increasingly difficult Britain followed the Dutch in using slave labour, leading to the development of the Slave Trade Triangle.

When ripe, the cane was cut by hand. It was rarely refined at source because of the risk of spoilage. Instead it could be shipped to market in cane form then crushed to obtain the sweet juices. Efficient presses powered by oxen had been developed by the mid 1400s. These had vertical rollers through which the cane was passed. Further improvements followed as water power was introduced.

To convert this liquid sugar into a suitable form for transport, it had to be boiled in large pans, as used in the salt industry. Up to four boilings took place, with bullocks' blood being added to raise the scum to the surface where it was skimmed off. This thicker liquid was then poured into 'hogs heads', large barrels or casks, four feet high, where it would solidify. The barrels would then be shipped off to Europe where the refining would take place.

From Georgian to Victorian times in England, sugar would be made in clay vessels, then tipped out in the form of 'sugar loaves'. When sugar was required, the sugar loaf would be attacked with various claws and tongs to break it down into useable lumps.

Sugar in North West England

In 1600 Liverpool was still a small settlement with a population of 300, seven streets and only 20 ships, all of which were involved in coastal trading. There was regular traffic to London, with cheeses going south and the return cargo consisting of iron and sugar. The Irish rebellion of the 1640s meant a loss of Irish Trade whilst an outbreak of the plague in London in 1666 cut off sugar supplies to Liverpool so sugar trading to the West Indies began.

William Blundell bought space in sailing ship 'Antelope' to export linen ( bought on Ormskirk market?). His return cargo of sugar made him a 200% profit on his investment. Other notable local families such as the Crosbys and the Norris' followed suit and bought their own ships and by 1679 there were six ships regularly visiting the West Indies to bring back sugar.

There is increasing evidence of the widening use of sugar in North West England. In 1686 the inventory of James Berry, an Ormskirk grocer, listed 28lbs of sugar and the bottoms of sugar casks. In 1725 Nicholas Blundell took receipt of a box from London which contained tea and sugar and this despite the presence of a refinery in Ormskirk, run by Janer Laithwaite. In 1667 Smith and Danvers, businessmen fleeing London after the Great Fire set up their refinery in Liverpool.

Closer to the Sankey, in the 1600s Thomas Patten was already an established tobacco and sugar merchant in Warrington. In 1698 he cleared many of the fish weirs from the Mersey to allow sailing flats access to Warrington quays. Trade improved dramatically to an impressive 2000 tons per year. He eventually built Bank Quay where he opened his own sugar refinery in 1717. During his travels in England during 1720, Defoe noted sugar, copper, pins and sail cloth being produced in Warrington.

In 1721 The Act for the construction of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation was passed, and this was completed by 1739, allowing the East Lancashire towns access to Thomas Patten's sugar. With the loss at sea of London and Bristol sailing ships involved in the sugar trade, he was able to gain a monopoly in the trade, leading to his family becoming very wealthy. He was able to build Bank Hall, the present Town Hall in Warrington.

In 1760 a new sugar refinery was opened in the Horsemarket, Warrington. A surviving inventory for this refinery lists the equipment involved, bought from a Lancaster Sugar House. The top four floors were the mould floors where sugar was allowed to dry off in the earthenware moulds and stored until needed. (The moulds were bought in Prescot as they were cheaper than those made in Liverpool.) On the bottom floor the refining took place, using pans, scum tubs and paddles. Twelve iron candlesticks indicated that work continued even in the hours of darkness. This seems to have been a common practice as there are two reported cases of refineries being burned down in Liverpool. An eye witness account of the time records the nightly traffic of sugar hogsheads being delivered by horse and cart from Liverpool. This was a very noisy affair with the shouting of the carters, the clash of hooves on cobbles, the clattering of the hogs heads, (the empty ones being the worst) and the final retirement of all concerned to the nearest inn for refreshment. How did anyone in the neighbourhood sleep?

The Patten family business continued to flourish, through various partnerships and marriages. One of the partners was Joseph Parr who set up the Parr bank which was to become the Westminster Bank. Bank Quay and refinery were eventually taken over by Walter Kerfoot who opened up the quay to other users, for suitable fees of course. Only the sugar inmporters were allowed free use of the quay. Sugar was gradually phased out as other industries were introduced into the town and by 1825 the refining of sugar in Warrington had ceased.

Dr Duggan's presentation revealed what a rich past the sugar industry could draw on and was a revelation to all. The Society extended its thanks to the speaker and wished her well with her next publication.

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